Nicholas has two main aspects of his reign which are the problems that he faced at a critical stage of Russian history, and the growth of opposition to Tsardom. Nicholas’ upbringing made him suspicious of reformation and he continued repressive attitudes. Konstantin Pobedonostsev was a very influential minister and was Nicholas’ tutor as a boy, who passed ‘ the deep distaste for liberal/democratic idea’s’ and believed that imperial autocracy was the only way to rule Russia. Nicholas followed suite.

Nicholas’s policies prove how out of touch he was with reform as they were reactionary. Russification was a severely enforced policy which declared Russian the first language and the courts were taken in this language alone and discrimination of over 50% of the population began, and the state influenced every aspect of their lives. Anti-Semitism means that the Jews were the greatest victim of Russification who were made to be scapegoats of Russian problems and suffered terrible pogroms.

Because of censorship and Russification/Anti-Semitism, opposition grew from Social Revolutionaries to Liberalist reformers, proof of Nicholas’s out of touch policy. However, Russia’s economy began to thrive thanks to the work of Peter Stolypin and Sergei Witte, who were very pro-tsar.

SUMMARY – Nicholas out of touch in policies, very much reactionary and influenced by POBEDONOSTSEV,
- Russification caused bitterness and much confusion
- The Jews suffered terribly due to pogroms
- Opposition grew

Economic Reformation under Witte, saw rapid growth in the coal from the Ukraine, Steel outputs in the Urals and Oil in Caucasus, which was maintained by his reforms and took forward through private enterprise. The Tsar had intentions of strengthening the arms of Russia through the money made. Witte invited foreign experts on how to make more of this money and compete on terms with the Great Nations.

State Capitalism, as witte was impressed by the economies of the democratic countries and wanted to follow along the same lines by trading (he did admit that Russia’s backwardness was a problem). Witte, then so arranged big loans and investments from foreign countries and imposed taxes. He also introduced Tarriff Reform. Witte also went on to put Russia on Gold Standard (fixed gold content) to stabilise the economy, and was largely successful although painful for those at home.

Witte recognised the importance of railways as they would have a positive effect on the economy (imports and exports, transporting supplies/materials around Russia) and invested heavily into them. He worked on the Trans-Siberian Railway Moscow-Vladivostok, which encouraged the migration of workers and was an impressive representation of the Russian Empire.

Witte did have his problems though, as he made Russia too dependent of foreign loans, and he also neglected the agricultural problems and light engineering however this can be balanced by arguing that this was the most he could tackle due to the problems he faced with Nicholas who deeply disliked him, who made his policies difficult to enforce.

SUMMARY

Economy under witte – growth in UKRAINE, URALS AND CAUCASUS
Tsar wanted money to strengthen army
Witte wanted to make Russia strong
– Foreign experts
– State Capitalism (trading with GN’s)
– Big loans + investments
– Tariff Reform and Taxes
– Gold Standard

He also invested in railways for export/import and worker migration, but was too dependent on foreign loans + neglected light engineering (repairing railway) and agriculture.